BRITISH DENDROBATID GROUP NEWSLETTER
NUMBER 49 MARCH/JUNE 2003

Dendrobates claudiae lives in shady regions on forest floor leaf litter and heliconia stands, and is regularly associated with steep hillsides. Populations are dense, and favourable sites often contain 2 or 3 animals per square metre (Ostrowski, in press). The male produces a short, buzzing call during most of the day, hut takes a siesta at lunchtime. 1-4 eggs are laid in the leaf litter and then tended by the male. Likely deposition sites for the larvae include ground level phytotelmata such as low tree holes or diffenbachia as well as small pools formed in leaves on the forest floor. In the terrarium, larvae should be raised individually to avoid cannibalism. The adults take only springtails as Drosophila are too large to elicit a feeding response (Ostrowski, in press). Two interesting points came up while hunting D. claudiae in Panama last winter. Firstly, why was such a common frog living in an accessible place, not described until recently? One idea that seems likely to the author is that D. claudiae, being superficially similar to Phyllobates lugubris in both dorsal and ventral pattern, was and still is mistaken for juveniles of the latter species. Because of this similarity, a brief guide for field identification has been prepared. Specimens shown to exhibit a combination these morphological traits can be labeled Dendrobates claudiae:

• A ventral pattern of blue maculation on a black base extending from chin to vent and also the underside of the legs. This same pattern covers only the area from the neck to vent in P. lugubris, leaving a solid black throat.
• Dorsolateral stripes coming to a labialy directed point, often forming a vertical stripe, on the tip of the snout. P. lugubris invariably shows a rounded union of the dorsolateral stripes across the top of the snout.
• A plain, brown colouration, without obvious markings, on the outer surfaces of the limbs. P. lugubris typically shows a pattern of brown (also yellow or light green) maculation on a black base on the limbs.
• A short stripe, parallel to the dorsal markings, through the centre of the flank. Absent in P. lugubris, however the ventral markings often extend across the flanks forming an irregular pattern.
• A size of more than 15mm can eliminate D. claudiae from consideration, as P. lugubris is larger, about 18-25mm.

Secondly, do some D. claudiae populations employ mimicry? The similarity to P. lugubris has already been established. The idea was suggested by Ostrowski while comparing consistencies in variation in both species between the Lorna Partida mainland site and the Isla Colon site. In both species, visual morphology (colour, pattern) is "typical" at the Lorna Partida mainland site, with each species resembling other nearby populations (such as Isla Basimentos) of their species. The exception is the Isla Colon site, where both species display unique orange coloration. Another explanation is that some environmental variable (such as diet) influences the coloration of both species on Isla Colon.

The D. minutus group is very under-represented in American terrariums, if anyone is keeping them at all. They are no doubt very interesting captives, and we could benefit from this type of close study of their habits. Hopefully this article will be useful for anyone planning either to do some frog tourism in the Bocas del Toro area or breed these frogs. Jeff Mette.

Bioactive alkaloids of frog skin: Combinatorial bioprospecting reveals that pumiliotoxins have an arthropod source
John W. Daly*, Tetsuo Kaneko*, Jason Wilham*, H. Martin Garraffo*, Thomas F. Spande*, Alex Espinosa, and Maureen A. Donnelly
*Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892: Ciflorpan, Universidad de Panama, Panama, Republica de Panama and Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199.

Nearly 500 alkaloids have been detected in skin extracts from frogs of the family Dendrobatidae. All seem to have been sequestered unchanged into skin glands from alkaloid-containing arthropods. Ants, beetles, and millipedes seem to be the source of decahydroquinolines, certain izidines, coccinellines, and spiropyrrolizidine oximes. But the dietary source for a major group of frog-skin alkaloids, namely the pumiliotoxins (PTXs), alloPTXs, and homoPTXs, remained a mystery. In hopes of revealing an arthropod source for the PTX group, small arthropods were collected from eight different sites on a Panamanian island, where the dendrobatid frog (Dendrobates pumilio) was known to contain high levels of two PTXs. The mixed arthropod collections from several sites, each representing up to 20 arthropod taxa, contained PTX 307 A and or alloPTX 323B. In addition, the mixed arthropod collections from several sites contained a 5,8-disubstituted indolizidine (205A or 235B), representing another class of alkaloids previously unknown from an arthropod. An ant alkaloid, decahydroquinoline 195A. was detected in the mixed arthropod collections from several sites. Thus, "combinatorial bioprospecting" demonstrates that further collection and analysis of individual taxa of leaf-litter arthropods should reveal the taxa from which PTXs, alloPTXs, and 5,S-disubstituted indolizidines are derived.
Dendrobates pumilio: Summers, K., Cronin, T.W., and Kennedy, T., 2003, Variation in spectral reflectance among populations of Dendrobates pumilio, the strawberry poison frog, in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, Panama: Journal of Biogeography, v. 30, p. 35-53. John W. Daly

Poison Hunters
For years explorers have searched the Neotropics for extraordinary finds, lost cities of gold, lands of warrior princesses, mythical beasts, and most recently the source of deadly frog poisons. It was said that frog poisons were used by Indian tribes for hunting and were powerful enough to kill a man several times. The poisons gave the group of frogs from which they were derived the name of poison-dart frogs, poison-arrow frogs, and dart poison frogs. All of these names could however be considered an exaggeration. This family, Dendrobatidae, currently consists of less than 200 species with well over 100 of these species being in the non-toxic* genera, Colostethus l. The brightly co 1oured frogs in the genus Dendrobates are assuredly toxic but are not considered lethal, at least to humans. In fact, only three species of frogs in the five species genera, Phyllobates, were used to poison darts 2. This use was also limited to the western Colombian tribes of Noanama and Embera Choco whereas most arrow and dart poisons used by other tribes are plant-based curares from the Strychnos genus 2. Over the last few decades nearly 500 chemicals have been isolated from dendrobatids 4. These chemicals are in a group called alkaloids, generally plant-derived chemicals, which contain nitrogen rings. Alkaloids frequently have very strong effects when administered to animals. Nicotine, cocaine, morphine, and strychnine are all examples of alkaloids 5. The hunt for these poisons began in earnest in the early 1960's by Dr. Bernhard Witkop and has been joined by a number of researchers, primarily Dr. John W. Daly and colleagues of the National Institutes of Health. The work began with the discovery of batrachotoxin in Phyllobates bicolor and P. aurotaenia and quickly expanded to include several other major classes of dendrobatid alkaloids 2. Currently there are 22 structural classes 4. So what are these classes, what do they do to make cells. For example muscle cells can twitch excitedly to the point of spasm and permanent contraction. Batrachotoxin is one of the most toxic natural compounds known 3. It has an extremely high affinity for the sodium channels in cell walls. The presence of batrachotoxin in muscle cells causes the sodium channels to remain open allowing an influx of sodium ions into the cell. The muscle cells, especially heart muscle, rapidly contract and remain contracted causing cardiac arrest within minutes 7. Batrachotoxin is so toxic that it is estimated that somewhere between 100-300 micrograms µg will cause death in humans 3. The average adult P. terribilis contains over 1100 µg of batrachotoxins 8. Pumiliotoxin causes the release of calcium ions from within the sarcoplasmic reticulum, another membrane system within muscle cells. Pumiliotoxin also prevents the return of calcium ions to storage sites 9. The effects of pumiliotoxin are muscle contractions, locomotor difficulties, salivation, uncontrolled chewing, and other such physiological responses 7. Histrionicotoxins interfere with the sodium and potassium channels in muscle cells as well as acetylcholine receptors in nerve cells 9. The decahydroquinolines block acetylcholine receptors in muscle cells. The effect, though very weak, prevents muscle contraction 7. The effects of the indolizidines have been little studied but this large and varied class appears to effect, among other potential sites, nicotinic receptors in muscle and nerve cells 7. To fully utilise this cornucopia of chemistry each frog could contain dozens of toxins 2. It was initially assumed that the frogs synthesized these alkaloids completely or from precursor enzymes8. Granular glands and their structure were discovered in a number of dendrobatid species and it was hypothesised that these glands could hold the enzymes to synthesise the toxins 2. Over the years the hunt for the frog poisons posed a number of questions that eventually led away from this theory. Wild caught P. terribilis still had very high levels of batrachotoxin in their system over 6 years after their capture 2. Captive born P. terribilis from the wild parents showed no batrachotoxin in their skins. The long time elapse after capture would certainly lead credence to the theory of frogs producing their own toxins. But why did the offspring not contain batrachotoxin? It had been known that different populations of frogs, even of the same species, had varying profiles of toxins 2. Daly studied three populations of Dendrobates auratus from Panama and Costa Rica and found that although each population had its own fingerprint profile variance could even occur on an individual level 10. Additionally, it appeared the further apart the populations the fewer the shared toxins 2. Daly then analysed the toxins in a population of D. auratus introduced into Hawaii in 1932 and found a large profile divergence between the supposed founder stock in Panama. In fact, the Hawaiian population was completely lacking in some of the major alkaloids from the Panamanian stock 10. More extensive studies of captive raised animals of a number of dendrobatid species failed to detect any alkaloids 10. When some of these captive animals were raised in outdoor terrariums they did produce profiles similar to the wild stock of the same locale but at reduced levels. By the early 1990's the problems began to point to a dietary component to the poisons. Daly fed fruitflies dusted with isolated alkaloids extracted from the skins of wild frogs and found that these chemicals were taken up into the skins of the captive animals in the genera Dendrobates, Epipedobates, and Phyllobates 11. The alkaloids were not detected in internal organs and tissues, however 11. Furthermore, Colostethus frogs did not take up these alkaloids, a mirror of their wild life lack of toxins.

These structural classes are based on the number of rings, the placement of the nitrogen atom. and other chemical components such as presence and number of hydroxyl (OH), methyl (CH3-), or other side chains (R-, R' -). Five of these 22 classes are considered major classes and they are batrachotoxins, pumiliotoxins, histrionicotoxins, indolizidines, and decahydroquinolines. Some classes have many constituent alkaloids and may be widespread in dendrobatids6. Others may be limited in variety e.g. stereochemistry, or frequency. The batrachotoxins are highly toxic and found only in frogs in the genus Phyllobates and strangely enough in feathers of New Guinean birds in the genus Pitohui 7. Pumiliotoxin and its subclasses are also very toxic and capable of causing death in mammals in high enough doses 7. Indolizidines and decahydroquinolines cause locomotor difficulties in mice, while histrionicotoxins require much higher doses to elicit similar responses 7.

The efficacy and importance of these chemicals is based on vertebrate physiology. Animal muscle and nerve cells act as miniature batteries. The cells utilize ions such as potassium (K+), sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cr), and calcium (Ca2+) that, when not in a state of equilibrium within the cell. cause a slight electrical current. Embedded within the surface and interior membranes of these cells are ion channels and 'pumps'. The channels can be opened and closed based on chemical imbalances, gradients, and receptor sites. Furthermore, the pumps can move these ions against concentration gradients. This complex arrangement is what allows nerve cells to 'fire' and muscle cells to contract and relax. Alkaloids. and dendrobatid toxins in particular, interfere with the channels and pumps in cell walls causing loss of function or hyperfunction of These results provided some answers to results seen years previously. This discovered uptake system could show how wild caught animals could maintain their alkaloids for many years. It also showed that the frogs were immune to chemicals that are toxic to other animals, an expansion of an earlier observation that tissues from frogs in the genus Phyllobates showed no reaction to the presence of batrachotoxin 8.

So now the thought was shifting from internal synthesis to dietary origins and those origins needed to be discovered. Some of the lesser dendrobatid alkaloids such as pyrrolizidines, indolizidines, pyrrolidines, and piperidines had been isolated from ants and other lesser alkaloids were found in certain beetles and millipedes but none of the major classes had been detected in arthropod prey 12. Daly still considered the possibility that the frogs were ingesting building block chemicals and that further synthesis was occurring l2. Daly and colleagues investigated further by capturing Dendrobates auratus tadpoles from a population in Panama and raising them. The metamorphosed frogs were fed leaf-litter arthropods collected from a second locale in Panama while control frogs were fed flightless fruitflies. When they were later sacrificed it was found that the frogs raised on leaf-litter insects contained a significant amount of alkaloids while the control frogs contained nonel2. Interestingly the frogs showed alkaloids profiles similar to the frogs from the region from where the leaflitter was accumulated and not from the parent stock of their collected location 12. In time a short list of minor alkaloids shared between dendrobatid frogs and arthropods was generated 13. Unfortunately, this list, as of a 2000 published study, only consisted of 22 of the near 500 dendrobatid alkaloids. These studies are certainly pointing to a dietary source for the vast array of chemicals, but where are they coming from? Hindering the search is the fact that arthropod fauna are extremely diverse and tiny or microscopic. The most recent published progress by Daly and colleagues examined arthropod collections from a number of sites in Panama and extracted the alkaloids. While the arthropod taxa were too diverse to isolate the exact source of the extracted chemicals the researchers were able to detect two of the pumiliotoxins and an indolizidine, both major classes of dendrobatid toxins4. These data are showing promise that bioprospecting of arthropod taxa will reveal the sources of many, if not all, of the dendrobatid toxins. Interestingly, as dendrobatid toxins have been found in frogs and toads from Madagascar, South and Central America, and Australia l4, 15, & 16 as well as the previously mentioned Pitohui bird from New Guinea, the arthropod source puzzle should shed some light on the broader puzzle of evolutionary theory.
* Colostethus inguinalis was shown to contain the potent toxin tetrodotoxin in its skin 17.

References:
1. Grant, T. and M.C. Ardila-Robayo. 2002. A new species of Colostethus (Anura: Dendrobatidae) from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Columbia. Herpetologica 58(2): 252-260.
2. Daly, I.W., G.B. Brown, M. MensahDwumah, and C.W. Myers. 1978. Classification of skin alkaloids from Neotropical poison-dart frogs (Dendrobatidae). Toxicon 16: 163-188.
3. Myers, C.W., I.W. Daly, and B. Malkin. 1978. A dangerously toxie new frog (Phyllobates) used by Embera Indians of western Colombia, with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 161 (2):309-365.
4. Daly, I.W. et al. 2002. Bioactive alkaloids of frog skin: Combinatorial bioprospecting reveals that pumiliotoxins have an arthropod source. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 99(22): 13996-14001.
5. Solomons, T.W. 1988. in Organic Chemistry. 4'h Ed. (Wiley and Sons, New York)
6. Daly, I.W., CW. Myers, and N. Whittaker. 1987. Further classification of skin alkaloids from the Neotropieal poison frogs (Dendrobatidae), with a general survey oftoxie/ noxious substances in the amphibia. Toxicon 25( I 0): 1023-1095.
7. Heatwole, H. ed. 1994. Amphibian Biology: Vol. I The Integument (Sun'ey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd., NSW Australia).
8. Daly. I.W., C.W. Myers, l.E. Warnick, and E.X. Albuquerque. 1980. Levels of bau'achotoxin and lack of sensitivity to its action in poison-dart frogs (Dendrobatidae). Science 208: 1383-1385.
9. Myers, C.W. and l.W. Daly. 1983. DartPoison Frogs. Sci. Am. 248(2): 120-133.
10. Daly, I.W. et al. 1992. Variability in alkaloid profiles in Neotropical poison frogs (Dendrobatidae): Genetic versus environmental determinants. Toxicon 30(8): 887-898.
11. Daly, J.W. et al. 1994. An uptake system for dietary alkaloids in poison frogs (Dendrobatidae). Toxieon 32(6): 657-663.
12. Daly, J.W. et a1. 1994. Dietary source for skin alkaloids of poison frogs (Dendrobatidae)? J. of Chem. Eco1. 20(4): 943-955.
13. Daly, J.W. et a1. 2000. Arthropod-Frog connection: Decahydroquinoline and pyrrolizidine alkaloids common to microsympatric myrmicine ants and dendrobatid frogs. J. of Chem. Eco1. 26(1): 73-85.
14. Daly, J.W., R.J. Highet, and C.W. Myers. 1984. Occurrence of skin alkaloids in non-dendrobatid frogs from Brazil (Bufonidae), Australia (Myobtachidae) and Madagascar (Mantellinae). Toxicon 22(6): 905-919.
15. Daly, J.W. et a1. 1986. Alkaloids from dendrobatid frogs: structures of two Q-hydoxy congeners of 3-butyl-5 propylindolizidine and occurrence of 2,5-disubstituted pyn'olidines and a 2,6-disubstituted piperidine. J. of Nat. Prod. 49(2): 265-280.
15. Garraffo, H.M., et a1. 1993. Alkaloids from bufonid toads (Melanophyrinisclls): Decahydroquinolines, pumiliotoxins and homopumiliotoxins, indolizidines, pyrrolizidines, and quinolizidines. J. of Nat. Prod. 56(3): 357-373.
16. Garraffo, H.M., et a1. 1993. Alkaloids in Madagascan frogs (Mantella): Pumiliotoxins, indolizidines, quinolizidines, and pyrrolizidines. J. of Nat. Prod. 56 (7): 1016-1038.
17. Daly, J.W. et a1. 1994. First Occurrence of tetrodotoxin in a dendrobatid trog (Colostethlls iliRlIinalis), with further reports for the bufonid genus Ateloplls. Toxicon 32(3): 279-285.
Other References:
Myers, C.W. and J. W. Daly. 1976. Preliminary evaluation of skin toxins and vocalizations in taxonomic and evolutionary studies of poison-dart frogs (Dendrobatidae). Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 157(3):173262.
Mensah-Dwumah, M. and J.W. Daly. 1978. Pharmacological activity of alkaloids from poison-dart frogs (Dendrobatidae). Toxicon 16: 189-194.
Neuwirth, M., J. W. Daly, C.W. Myers aud L.W. Tice. 1979. Morphology of the grauular secretory glands in skin of Poison-dart frogs (Dendrobatidae). Tissue & Cell 11(4): 755-771. Myers, C.W. and LW. Daly. 1979. A name for the poison frog of Cordillera Azul, Eastern Peru, with notes on its biology and skin toxins (Dendrobatidae). Am. Mus. Novitates 2674: 1-24
Myers, C.W. and J.W. Daly. 1980. Taxonomy and ecology of Dendrobates bombetes, a new Andean poison frog with new skin toxins. Am. Mus. Novitates 2692: 1-23
Edwards, M.W., J.W. Daly, and C.W. Myers. 1988. Alkaloids from a Panamanian frog Dendrobates speelosa," Identification of pumiliotoxin-A and allopumiliotoxin class alkaloids, 3,5-disubstituted indolizidines, 5-substituted 8-methylindolizidines, and a 2-methyl-6-nonyl-4-hydroxypiperidine. J, of Nat. Prod, 51 (6): 1188-1197.
Jain, P, et a1. 1995, A new subclass of alkaloids from a dendrobatid poison frog: a structure for deoxypumiliotoxin 251H. J, of Nat. Prod, 58(1): 100104.
Garraffo, H.M., P. Jain, T.F. Spande, and J,W. Daly. 1997. Alkaloid 223A: The first trisubstituted indolizidine from dendrobatid frogs, J, of Nat. Prod. 60: 2-5.

Many thanks to Tim Paine, San Francisco for this article.

BREEDING MANTELLA LAEVIGATA
I am a beginner to frog keeping, and a short while ago I contacted the BDG regarding purchasing some additional vivariums. I was put in touch with a gentleman who was selling up, it's a long story but I ended up with 10 Mantella laevigata. I had no knowledge of these fantastic little frogs prior to my purchase, I decided to write in as the frogs are breeding quite happily, and hopefully the information may be of use to another breeder. The frogs were left as a colony and housed in a tank measuring 24 x 15 x 15. It is all glass with the exception of a wooden top, which has a ceramic heat plate secured to it and also UV lighting. The rear pane of glass has a gauze strip in it approx 2in wide across the back near the top for ventilation. It also has sliding doors at the front. The floor of the tank was covered in a thin layer of very small aquatic gravel, I then covered this with organic orchid compost, piling some up to create a raised area on one side of the tank. I then covered it all with moss from the corner of my garden. On top of the raised area, a stack was made using bamboo lengths. Around the base of the raised area, I planted a couple of bromeliads (the green ones with red flowers - 99p from Tesco), and also some cuttings from another hobbyist. Two water dishes were positioned among the plants, 8 film canisters (the black type) filled with water, were dotted among the plants and around the water dishes. The frogs are kept in varied temperatures, from a low of 68 at night raising this to 72 first thing in the morning, and generally up to about 76 for a couple of hours in the afternoon, before reducing it again to 72 and 68 at night. In the early days, I took the afternoon temperature up to 80, but there were concerns that this could be too high for the tadpoles, causing them to develop too quickly. They are liberally sprayed, three to four times a day, with the first spraying approximately 1 hour after the first temperature rise in the morning. I use a zoo-med UV level 2 which is lit for approximately four to five hours through the day, except when there are tadpoles in the water dishes, as I am worried about too much exposure for them. At present I am only feeding two types of fruit flies, plus springtails, but I am hoping to greatly widen the range through the arrival of the Summer! and the kind help of other hobbyists. I feed quite large quantities daily for four days, the food on the first day being given a good dusting with Nutrobal. The fifth and sixth day I don't feed, this gives the frogs a day to hoover the tank out, and a day of rest.

I think the colony consists of, three males and six females (unfortunately, I lost one due to old age). This is only an estimate and could not confirm this ratio until the tank is stripped down and someone with a bit of experience looks at them. You often hear the males calling out with a short and pleasant cricket like sound, shortly after spraying. The males are generally more visible, as they monitor their territory, with the females seen less frequently, during feeding and travelling too and from the nesting sites. After only a few days in their new environment, too my great excitement, I noticed a white egg in one of the film canisters. More followed and within a couple of weeks, all of the film canisters were utilised as were the water bowels. Anything from 1 to 5 eggs, are laid directly in the water, although I am sure, these are not all from the same female. The majority of the eggs are fertilised, and are free swimming at about 8 to 9 days. Occasionally I get a canister of eggs, all of which are infertile, but I distribute these amongst the other tadpoles, in the other nesting sites. The film canisters are inspected about twice a week, I simply lift them out of position, check for new arrivals, tip out about 50% of the water and top it up with fresh, it doesn't appear to bother the adults. In the beginning I noticed tadpoles disappearing, it was a complete mystery. I also noticed if a nesting site was cleared for whatever reason, refreshed and replaced, fertile eggs quickly appeared in there again. Because of the need to increase numbers due to the ages of some of the colony and the availability of new stock, I decided to remove the tadpoles at approximately 1 to 2 weeks old, in order to free up the nesting sites. Initially I placed them in a small gully I made in the substrate in the flooded flat area of the tank. I put approximately ten tadpoles in there. Some of these quickly disappeared, and I feared I had been inadvertently throwing them away, as I scooped the water out manually to keep the water level constant. I decided to house the remaining tadpoles in a big builders bucket, the type with nylon handles, which hold about eight gallons. I covered the floor with small aquatic gravel, and some Elodea in a pot was put in for cover, a small pump filter was utilised and it was filled with about 12 inches of water. I placed 12 tadpoles in this, and within a week only six were visible. I did witness one gorging on another carcass. A few days later I could only see two dismembered tadpoles on the floor of the bucket, I lifted the pot out containing the elodea, and one remaining tadpole was there, so distorted it looked like it was going to pop. I have since housed the remaining three in two petpals. The largest one is approximately two months old, and is just starting to develop its rear legs. These remaining three tadpoles I believe have munched their way through half a dozen of their friends apiece. They also readily take flake and dead fruit flies. I have another dozen or so tadpoles that are free swimming, and I intend to house them separately in ice cream tubs, and hopefully rear more to maturity. I am also going to distribute some tadpoles to some other hobbyists, before the frogs start their long earned rest in May. Hopefully I will be able to write again in due course, with a successful conclusion with the tadpoles, and possibly some pictures, depending on camera skills developed between now and then. I look forward to any advice or comments. David Burnett.

Poisonous Customers hop to the aid of Peru's forests.
An innovative frog exporting business is a new departure for the private lending arm of the World Bank, writes Demetri Sevastopulo Financial Times (London) (May 3, 2003, Saturday USA Edition 1)
They may not have studied at Harvard Business School but the International Finance Corporation's latest recruits are doing more than their fair share to promote sustainable development. Decked out in vivid colours, the tiny amphibians at the private lending arm of the World Bank are poison-dart frogs. Known as Epipedobates and Dendrobates, they are part of a business model to protect Peruvian rainforests. The IFC and a local partner are establishing a frog ranching and export business. "We are promoting sustainable cultivation of poison-dart frogs for export so local people can earn a better living from conserving the forest than cutting it down," said Sam Keller, the IFC officer responsible for the project. The move reflects a new trend in the way the IFC does business. Other projects in the pipeline include a catch-and-release ecotourism fly-fishing venture in Mongolia. "The IFC used to fulfill its mission largely by providing financing for private-sector projects in developing countries when few other institutions would do so," said Mr Keller. "But now we are trying to identify activities that provide environmental and social benefits while enhancing the bottom line." Using a technique developed by German biologist Rainer Schulte, farmers, or campesinos, attach half-cut plastic bottles to trees, filling them with water to create breeding pools in which frogs deposit tadpoles hatched from the females' eggs. Subsistence farmers can earn more selling frogs to pet markets than selling trees to loggers. Campesinos generally earn $50 a month but the IFC hopes to boost their income to $115. In the process, it estimates it can save 3,000 hectares of forest. The genesis for the project came from Dutch biologist Jan Post, who stumbled on the potential of frogs. After buying his daughter five less exotic frogs, she bred them into 100 that she sold at an amphibian day in Baltimore, Maryland. "By 4pm she had sold the whole lot for $ 750." Mr Post noted that poison-dart frogs, more difficult to breed, fetched higher prices. He then developed the project, working with Mr Schulte, before bringing it to the IFC to obtain finance. The project won the World Bank's Innovation in the Marketplace award. Sabrina Birner, a biodiversity business consultant who did research for the IFC, said: "They (poison-dart frogs) range in price from $ 40 to $ 120." Rarer species can fetch as much as $200. The largest market outside the US is Germany, where there are an estimated 10,000 frog enthusiasts.

Frogs & Forests, as the IFC backed business is called, is steering clear of the seamier side of the trade in rare animals. Less highly principled entrepreneurs supply pet lovers in the developed world with protected species and have links with criminal networks. Under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, trade in the frogs is only permitted as long as the population is sustained. The IFC estimates the trade in smuggled poison-dart frogs is as much as $2m a year. Mr Keller said a benefit of the IFC project is that it would help reverse a declining population. " We should be able to capture a fair amount of the legal market share and displace a considerable amount of the illegal trade because we are a lowcost producer and consumers prefer to buy legally imported frogs if they are available," said Mr Keller. Poison-dart frogs are so named because of the tribal practice, which still exists in parts of Colombia, of extracting their toxin for darts that are shot from blowpipes to kill animals. The frogs can easily adapt to urban life. When removed from their natural habitat they lose their toxicity and pose no threat to their owners.
Copyright 2003 The Financial Times Limited; Reproduced with the kind permission of the Financial Times

Back From Extinction: The Rediscovery of the Rancho Grande Harlequin Frog (Atelopus cruciger) in Venezuela
On January 6, 2003 an expedition of researchers from the Sociedad Cientifica Amigos del Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, and rangers from Inparques, the Venezuelan National Park Service, rediscovered a population of the Rancho Grande Harlequin frog in a ravine on the Caribbean side of the coastal mountains within Parque Nacional Henri Pittier. This frog was featured in several recent articles about the plight of amphibians, including an article in the May 2001 National Geographic. There have been no confirmed reports of observations this species since 1982, leading some to speculate that it may have become extinct. The expedition was conducting a biological inventory on a transect from Rancho Grande Biological Station to the coastal town of Cata. This population was discovered after the expedition had altered its original path because of rough terrain to a ravine in the Rio de Cata drainage. Rafael Fernandez, the expedition coordinator, observed a single individual, then the group encountered several as they moved through the ravine. This appears to be a healthy local population, which may have been congregating to breed along this mountain stream. General Political Unrest in Venezuela For nearly a year, Venezuela has been experiencing political and economic instability. There are deep divisions between supporters of President Hugo Chavez and his opposition that led to a debilitating 2-month strike in December and January. It has resulted in temporary shortages of gasoline and other manufactured and imported items as well as controls on foreign currency exchange. This situation presents challenges to working within Venezuela and working as an international partner with a Venezuelan based group. Students and researchers working in Venezuela are facing a variety of challenges from interruption of classes at the University, to transportation difficulties, to increasing unemployment and salaries that have dramatically decreased in relation to the devaluation of Venezuelan currency. However, to date, the crisis has had remarkably little violence and has mostly consisted of non-violent street protests. This speaks well of the Venezuelan people's commitment to finding a political solution not a violent solution to this problem. We support and admire their tolerance for each other's differences at this difficult time. Impacts to the U.S. chapter's ability to work as a partner with the Venezuelan chapter are thankfully very few. We are working on methods of transferring funds from membership fees and other fundraising efforts to the Venezuelan chapter for upcoming expeditions and Proyecto Migratorio in the fall. We are hoping to conduct a field class in Venezuela in October, but are configuring the trip for the contingency that it may have to be cancelled if u.s. State Department travel warnings persist. In this time of crisis, the need for a partner organisation is stronger than ever. In this difficult economic time, financial support for the Sociedad's expeditions and research projects will provide much needed jobs for the students and researchers working in the park. Additionally, I believe it is important to contribute positively to the situation and show our support and optimism for the future in this most difficult time. From SCAPNHP Newsletter March 2003
A bit away from our usual subject but perhaps there is a glimmer of hope for some other 'extinct' species.

OBITUARY
We are sorry to report the death of one of our founder members, Bob Davies following a long illness. Bob, together with his wife, Val, were the ones who got the hobby of keeping tropical frogs, particularly Dendrobatids and Mantellas established in the UK. Whilst Bob has not been a member of the BDG for some time it was he and Val who were largely responsible for setting it up and it's running for many years. Our condolences go to Val. Mick Bajcar

An International Terrarium, Aquarium and Insect Market will be held in the 'Alpheusdal' a large hall in Berchem, Antwerp on Sun 26 October 2003. This unique event will bring together the Belgian terrarium, insect, and aquarium groups, TERRAvzw, KAVEvzw and ATV AQUATOMvzw for the first time. Admission to the event is 3.00. For further information contact Luc Vande Velde Drie Eikenstraat 132, B-2650 Edegem, Belgium.

The 31st Frogday of Dendrobatidae Nederland will be held at Vander Valk Hotel Haar1em Zuid, Toekanweg 2, 2035 LC HAARLEM near to Amsterdam Schipol airport on Saturday 27 September 2003 at 1200. For further information contact Mathieu Woldhuis, Fagelstraat 4lc, 1052 EX Amsterdam

EDITORIAL
Due to pressure of work I am again late with the Newsletter but I hope that you all understand. In order for me to catch up there will be one less issue this year but this and the next will be larger than normal to compensate. However I have very little in reserve for the next issue! This should be despatched early in October. For those who have not paid their subscriptions this will be the last one you receive. Unfortunately we have lost (been ripped off) with the credit card facility so it is cheques. £12/$30 to BDG I have received a good number of comments about the FBH and we will soon be affiliating as all were totally positive. Mick Bajcar